Pros and Cons of Earning a Masters Degree Before a PhD

Pros and Cons of Earning a Masters Degree Before a PhD As a potential applicant to graduate school you have a great many decisions to make. The initial decisions, such as what field to study, may come easily. However, many applicants struggle with choosing what degree to pursue, whether a master’s degree or PhD is right for them. Others know what degree they want. Those who choose a doctoral degree sometimes wonder if they should first complete a master’s degree. Do you need a master’s degree to apply to a doctoral program? Is a master’s degree an essential prerequisite for gaining admission to a doctoral program? Usually not. Does a master’s degree improve your odds of admission? Sometimes. Is it in your best interest to earn master’s before applying to PhD programs? It depends. Pros and Cons of Earning a Master's Before Applying to PhD Programs There are both advantages and disadvantages to earning a master’s before applying to PhD programs. Below are some of the pros and cons: Pro:  A master’s degree will introduce you to the process of graduate study. Without a doubt, graduate school is different from college. This is especially true at the doctoral level. A master’s program can introduce to you the process of graduate study and help you understand how it is different from undergraduate study.  A master’s program can help you make the transition to graduate school and prepare you for making the transition from college student to graduate scholar.   Pro:  A master’s program can help you see if you are ready for doctoral study. Are you ready for graduate school? Do you have the right study habits? Are you motivated? Can you manage your time? Enrolling in a master’s program can help you see if you have what it takes for success as a graduate student – and especially as a doctoral student. Pro: A master’s program can help you see if you are interested enough to undertake a PhD The typical college survey courses present a broad view of a discipline, with little depth. Small college seminars present a topic in more depth but it will not come close to what you will learn in graduate school. It is not until students are immersed in a field that they truly come to know the depth of their interest. Sometimes new grad students realize that the field is not for them. Others complete the master’s degree but realize that they have no interest in pursuing a doctorate. Pro: A masters may help you get into a doctoral program. If your undergraduate transcript leaves much to be desired, a master’s program may help you improve your academic record and show that you have the stuff that competent graduate students are made of. Earning a master’s degree shows that you are committed and interested in your field of study.  Returning students may seek a master’s degree to obtain contacts and recommendations from faculty. Pro: A master’s degree can help you change fields. Are you planning on studying a different field than your college major? It can be hard to convince a graduate admissions committee that you are interested and committed to a field in which that you have little formal experience. A master’s degree can not only introduce you to the field but can show the admissions committee that you interested, committed, and competent in your chosen field.   Pro: A master’s degree can offer a foot in the door to a particular graduate program. Suppose you hope to attend a specific graduate program. Taking a few graduate courses, nonmatriculated (or nondegree-seeking) can help you learn about the program and can help faculty learn about you. This is even more true for master’s students. In many graduate programs, master’s and doctoral students take some of the same classes. As a master’s student, you’ll have contact with graduate faculty – often those who teach in the doctoral program. Completing a thesis and volunteering to work on faculty research can help faculty get to know you as a competent and promising researcher. A master’s degree might offer you a foot in the door and a better chance of gaining admission to the department’s doctoral program. However, admission is not guaranteed. Before you choose this option, be sure that you can live with yourself if you don’t gain admission. Will you be happy with a terminal master? Con:  A master’s degree is time-consuming. Typically a full-time master’s program will require 2 years of study.  Many new doctoral students find that their master’s coursework doesn’t transfer. If you enroll in a master’s program recognize that it will likely not make a dent in your required doctoral coursework. Your  PhD  will likely take an additional 4 to 6 years after earning your master’s degree. Con:  A master’s degree is usually unfunded. Many students find this a big con: Master’s students usually do not receive much funding. Most master’s programs are paid for out-of-pocket. Are you prepared to potentially have tens of thousands of dollars of debt before you begin your PhD.?  If you choose not to seek a doctoral degree, what employment options accompany your master’s degree? While I’d argue that a master’s degree is always of value for your intellectual and personal growth, if the salary-return of your degree is important to you, do your homework and think carefully before enrolling in a master’s program prior to seeking your PhD. Whether you seek a master’s degree before applying to doctoral programs is a personal decision. Also recognize that many PhD programs award master’s degrees along the way, typically after the first year and completing exams and/or a thesis.

The Treasure of the Aztecs

The Treasure of the Aztecs In 1519, Hernan Cortes and his greedy band of some 600 conquistadors began their audacious assault on the  Mexica (Aztec) Empire. By 1521 the Mexica capital city of  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Tenochtitlan was in ashes, Emperor Montezuma was dead and the  Spanish were firmly in control of what they took to calling New Spain. Along the way, Cortes and his men collected thousands of pounds of gold, silver, jewels and priceless pieces of  Aztec art. Whatever became of this unimaginable treasure? The Concept of Wealth in the New World For the Spanish, the concept of wealth was simple: it meant gold and silver, preferably in easily negotiable bars or coins, and the more of it the better. For the Mexica and their allies, it was more complicated. They used gold and silver but primarily for ornaments, decorations, plates, and jewelry. The Aztecs prized other things far above gold: they loved brightly colored feathers, preferably from quetzals or hummingbirds. They would make elaborate cloaks and headdresses out of these feathers and it was a conspicuous display of wealth to wear one. They loved jewels, including jade and turquoise. They also prized cotton and garments like tunics made from it: as a display of power, Tlatoani Montezuma would wear as many as four cotton tunics a day and discard them after wearing them only once. The people of central Mexico were great merchants who engaged in trade, generally bartering goods with one another, but cacao beans were also used as a currency of sorts. Cortes Sends Treasure to the King In April of 1519, the Cortes expedition landed near present-day​  Veracruz: they had already visited the Maya area of Potonchan, where they picked up some gold and the invaluable interpreter Malinche. From the town they founded in Veracruz they made friendly relationships with the coastal tribes. The Spanish offered to ally themselves with these disgruntled vassals, who agreed and often gave them gifts of gold, feathers and cotton cloth. In addition, emissaries from Montezuma occasionally appeared, bringing great gifts with them. The first emissaries gave the Spanish some rich clothes, an obsidian mirror, a tray and jar of gold, some fans and a shield made from mother-of-pearl. Subsequent emissaries brought a gold-plated wheel six and a half feet across, weighing some thirty-five pounds, and a smaller silver one: these represented the sun and moon. Later emissaries brought back a Spanish helmet which had been sent to Montezuma; the generous ruler had filled the helm with gold dust as the Spanish had requested. He did this because he had been made to believe that the Spanish suffered from an illness which could only be cured by gold. In July of 1519, Cortes decided to send some of this treasure to the King of Spain, in part because the king was entitled to a fifth of any treasure found and in part because Cortes needed the kings support for his venture, which was on questionable legal ground. The Spanish put together all of the treasures they had accumulated, inventoried it and sent much of it to Spain on a ship. They estimated that the gold and silver was worth about 22,500 pesos: this estimate was based on its worth as a raw material, not as artistic treasures. A long list of the inventory survives: it details every item. One example: the other collar has four strings with 102 red stones and 172 apparently green, and around the two green stones are 26 golden bells and, in the said collar, ten large stones set in gold... (qtd. in Thomas). Detailed as this list is, it appears that Cortes and his lieutenants held much back: it is likely that the king received only one-tenth of the treasure taken thus far. The Treasures of Tenochtitlan Between July and November of 1519, Cortes and his men made their way to Tenochtitlan. Along their way, they picked up more treasure in the form of more gifts from Montezuma, loot from the Cholula Massacre and gifts from the leader of Tlaxcala, who in addition entered into an important alliance with Cortes. In early November, the conquistadors entered Tenochtitlan and Montezuma made them welcome. A week or so into their stay, the Spanish arrested Montezuma on a pretext and kept him in their heavily defended compound. Thus began the plunder of the great city. The Spaniards continually demanded gold, and their captive, Montezuma, told his people to bring it. Many great treasures of gold, silver jewels and featherwork were laid at the feet of the invaders. Furthermore, Cortes asked Montezuma where the gold came from. The captive emperor freely admitted that there were several places in the Empire where gold could be found: it was usually panned from streams and smelted for use. Cortes immediately sent his men to those places to investigate. Montezuma had allowed the Spaniards to stay at the lavish palace of Axayacatl, a former tlatoani of the empire and Montezumas father. One day, the Spanish discovered a vast treasure behind one of the walls: gold, jewels, idols, jade, feathers and more. It was added to the invaders ever-growing pile of loot. The Noche Triste In May of 1520, Cortes had to return to the coast  to defeat the conquistador army of Panfilo de Narvaez. In his absence from Tenochtitlan, his hotheaded lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado ordered the massacre of thousands of unarmed Aztec nobles attending the festival of Toxcatl. When Cortes returned in July, he found his men under siege. On June 30, they decided they could not hold the city and decided to depart. But what to do about the treasure? At that point, it is estimated that the Spanish had amassed some eight thousand pounds of gold and silver, not to mention plenty of feathers, cotton, jewels and more.   Cortes ordered the kings fifth and his own fifth loaded onto horses and Tlaxcalan porters and told the others to take what they wanted. Foolish conquistadors loaded themselves down with gold: smart ones only took a handful of jewels. That night, the Spanish were spotted as they tried to flee the city: the enraged Mexica warriors attacked, slaughtering hundreds of Spaniards on the Tacuba causeway out of the city. The Spanish later referred to this as the Noche Triste or Night of Sorrows.The kings and Cortes gold was lost, and those soldiers who carried very much loot either dropped it or were slaughtered because they were running too slowly. Most of the great treasures of Montezuma were irrevocably lost that night. Return to Tenochtitlan and Division of Spoils The Spanish regrouped and were able to re-take Tenochtitlan a few months later, this time for good. Although they found some of their lost loot (and were able to squeeze some more out of the defeated Mexica) they never found all of it, despite torturing the new emperor, Cuauhtà ©moc. After the city had been retaken and it came time to divide the spoils, Cortes proved as skilled at stealing from his own men as he had in stealing from the Mexica. After setting aside the kings fifth and his own fifth, he began making suspiciously large payments to his closest cronies for weapons, services, etc. When they finally got their share, Cortes soldiers were dismayed to learn that they had earned less than two hundred pesos each, far less than they would have gotten for honest work elsewhere. The soldiers were furious, but there was little they could do. Cortes bought them off by sending them on further expeditions which he promised would bring in more gold and expeditions were soon on their way to the lands of the Maya in the south. Other conquistadors were given encomiendas: these were grants of vast lands with native villages or town on them. The owner theoretically had to provide protection and religious instruction for the natives, and in return the natives would work for the landowner. In reality, it was officially sanctioned slavery and led to some unspeakable abuses. The conquistadors who served under Cortes always believed that he had held back thousands of pesos in gold from them, and the historical evidence seems to support them. Guests to Cortes home reported seeing many bars of gold in Cortes possession. Legacy of the Treasure of Montezuma In spite of the losses of the Night of Sorrows, Cortes and his men were able to take a staggering amount of gold out of Mexico: only Francisco Pizarros looting of the Inca Empire produced a greater amount of wealth. The audacious conquest inspired thousands of Europeans to flock to the New World, hoping to be on the next expedition to conquer a rich empire. After Pizarros conquest of the Inca, however, there were no more great empires to find, although legends of the city of El Dorado persisted for centuries. It is a great tragedy that the Spanish preferred their gold in coins and bars: countless priceless golden ornaments were melted down and the cultural and artistic loss is incalculable. According to the Spanish who saw these golden works, Aztec goldsmiths were more skilled than their European counterparts. Sources Diaz del Castillo, Bernal. . Trans., ed. J.M. Cohen. 1576. London, Penguin Books, 1963. Levy, Buddy. . New York: Bantam, 2008. Thomas, Hugh. . New York: Touchstone, 1993.

Phil Company II Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Phil Company II - Research Paper Example This means that a company should create a brand after acknowledging the influence of economic forces on any given marketing environment. In the contemporary business environment characterized by economic forces created by free enterprise, a company’s brand has proven to play a substantial role in ensuring accomplishment of marketing objectives. Therefore, modern managers should develop reliable skills of initiating and developing a company’s brand. In the context of Phil Company, we will strive to create a brand that deems appropriate for the company’s marketing strategy. From a theoretical perspective, creation of a brand starts at the definition stage whereby a manager defines what a company’s brand should mean to all the interested stakeholders. Upon defining a company’s brand, the responsible manager determines clear objectives meant for that company (Julian, 2011). Based on the business profile of Phil Company and the prevailing marketing force s in the electronics manufacturing industry, Phil can develop a concrete brand by articulating marketing research information into their decision making processes. Research information helps in brand creation because it highlights the key stakeholders and their respective expectations with respect to the company’s marketing practices. In the context of Phil Company, research findings show the expectations of selected market segments. After an accurate definition of the brand, the next step should involve specifying the intended objectives of that brand to the interested stakeholders. A typical brand should communicate the intended message to the target audience(Peter, 2004). A brand should create a vivid perception of a company’s products’ qualities and uniqueness. Phil Company emphasizes the need to differentiate their product with respect to the element of competition in the industry. As a result, the brand developed will influence the target audience at an em otional level. The content of the created brand should achieve a feeling of connection to the consumers. In addition, Phil can achieve loyalty among the consumer population by engaging in the house of brands. In order to reach all its target audience, Phil Company will engage in active brand positioning, both at the domestic and the international market environments. Brand positioning can be achieved through the use of advertisement channels like the media, both television and print, or through the internet. Employment of these modes of advertisement will facilitate substantial positioning of Phil’s brand in both markets (Peter, 2004). Product pricing is another essential element in marketing. In a competitive environment characterized by the typical forces of free enterprise, product pricing is influential in a company’s marketing process. A business environment enjoying the economic aspect of free enterprise allows easy entry and exit from any product industry. In th is regard, the electronic products industry in the US and at the international level has numerous competing manufacturers. Therefore, Phil has to consider the influence of pricing during the development of their marketing strategy. Phil chooses to adopt three pricing strategies that can facilitate the development of comprehensive pricing principles. The first pricing strategy adopted by Phil is

Central Processing Time Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Central Processing Time - Lab Report Example The methods used in achieving the results in this experiment via the use of a standard deck of playing cards and the involvement of one subject or individual. The participant in this case is a male individual, weighing 120 pounds, is 5 foot 9’ and is 26 years old. The three tasks to be performed are listed below: The mean processing time varies across the 3 sorting tasks set for the experiment. The second task – Suit Sort took a longer processing time compared to the last task – Color Sort with Preview. The facts are listed down on the data sheet. The processing time is dependent on complexity of the task to be performed and the type of hand used, if either it is the dominant one or the non-dominant one. The color sort with preview process took a lesser processing time because it involved the preview and use of the dominant hand. The computer generated graph for the mean processing time across the three tasks is represented below: The graph is plotted to show the output relation of the plot processing time against that of the class average time for the three tasks

Female genital mutilation and the practice of midwifery Dissertation

Female genital mutilation and the practice of midwifery - Dissertation Example The practices of FGM seem to be barbaric and cruel to Western society and in societies that hold such practices are done with the belief that there is a benefit to stealing the sexual arousal mechanisms from women in order to make them less carnal and more proper. The difficulty comes in trying to honour cultures for their beliefs while motivating them to change those beliefs because of false and dangerous consequences where female sex organs are concerned. Midwifery requires the acceptance of beliefs in concert with the application of good medical and traditional knowledge where childbirth is concerned. Consulting and caring for women who have had FGM requires sensitivity to the cultural beliefs with a firm understanding of how such procedures affect women in reference to their procreative lives. Psychological and medical knowledge is necessary to treat women with both respect and dignity despite any converse beliefs on the subject. While ideally it would be beneficial to abolish th e act of FGM, at this point in time it is still a potential problem that might arise when caring from patients from certain cultures or who come from a history of traumatic circumstances that ended in FGM. The following research proposal will explore the potential for a project in which the subject of FGM is examined through victims of the procedures, through the medical consequences that midwives face when dealing with patients who are victims of FGM, and through examining the balance between the victimisation of women and the cultural belief systems that must be honoured and respected while finding ways to deal with the consequences and offer reparative solutions where possible. 1.2 Background Female genital mutilation, also known as... From this research it is clear that female genital mutilation, also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision, has been defined by the World Health Organisation as â€Å"all procedures that involve the partial or total removal of female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons†. Unlike male circumcision, there are no health benefits to female circumcision and often contribute to urination difficulties or difficulty in childbirth later in life. The procedure most often will occur between the ages of birth and 15 and is considered a violation against women by world organisations across agencies. There are an estimated 100 to 140 million women who live with the consequences of the procedure with 92 million living on the African continent. There are four major types of FGM. These types are as follows: †¢ Clitoridectomy: partial or total removal of the clitoris (a small, sensitive and erectile part of the female genitals) and, in very rare cases, only the prepuce (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris). †¢ Excision: partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without excision of the labia majora (the labia are "the lips" that surround the vagina). †¢ Infibulation: narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and repositioning the inner, or outer, labia, with or without removal of the clitoris. †¢ Other: all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, e.g. pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterizing the genital area.

Pearl Harbor Essay Example for Free

Pearl Harbor Essay When we were asked to consider a question to answer, which would have been suitable for our personal study, I knew straight away that I would want to structure my question around Pearl Harbor. Since childhood, watching movies about Pearl Harbor always caught my attention. From most movies and books it seemed to me as if the Japanese people were just cruel and evil people, who had no basis to attack America; so was this the reason for the bombing? That they were just cruel people? Or did they have a legitimate reason which had been completely cut out of history by authors and the Hollywood directors? That question was embedded in my mind, and I always thought that I would research it when I had time, or to speak the truth, be motivated to. After sitting a few classes in lower sixth history, which was based upon our personal studies; I had realised that this was the time I was looking for. I could answer a question that really made me think, and not only that I would also be doing it as a little study. This furthered my interest on such a crucial time during World War Two. I went to the library and took out a couple of books regarding Pearl Harbor. Once I had read the books; I assumed I would now know the reason for Japan bombing Pearl Harbor, but the books I read had something in common, it told me how the bombing took place, how many were killed or injured etc, but never once mentioned why this all had taken place. The bombing by a few historians was seen as a focal point in that era, which helped secure a win for the Allies, so why was only half of the story published? In-fact it I possessed the same amount of knowledge on this particular topic, as I had done previously. This was when I decided to take it a step further and took out a selection of books regarding the bombing of Pearl Harbor, and also did some research on the internet. At first it was overwhelming having so much information in front of my eyes and now knowing how I should analysis it all. This was when I decided that I would read each book/site at different times of the day so I did not get confused. After each book or site I had read, I took a notepad and jotted down all the crucial sentences, phrases, and even copied pictures which would give me jump start. Now knowing that the question was answerable, I submitted it to my history teacher. Whilst I was awaiting her acknowledgment, I for some unknown reason had left everything unfinished. It was only during Christmas holidays, did I really start to think about a basic plan for my personal studies. I knew that in total I should be aiming to have at least three chapters (which did not include my conclusion). I would separate them into three separate categories; time leading up to the bombing, the day the bombing had taken place, and finally a key reason for the atrocity following a conclusion to tie up the lose ends. After receiving a conformation on the title, all I had to do was to read my notes which had been previously written a little while before. I would say that making my notes before writing the study had helped me a lot. I did not have to waste my time finding and analysing facts, as I had already done so. By the end of January, I had completed my first complete draft. It seemed to me that I had covered all the relevant issues which had to be mentioned which would help me get an answer. In total my first draft was made up of two-thousand one-hundred words, around a little more than a thousand words short than the maximum allowed. I took advantage of this and decided that I would use this gap to analysis each fact I presented. This was a good idea as I could comment on whether I thought a source was reliable or not. Overall I was satisfied with what I had achieved, in the space of time I had left. In future if I were ever given a similar task as this, I would remember to use the time wisely, and not take it for granted. I am sure if I had done that this time round, I would have been able to go through more sources, which would have given me a much better image to discuss. Another aspect of this study, which I am happy about is the fact it has shown me that I am capable of answering such an awkward question, and can make a sound judgment on what are relevant facts and what are just unreliable. This study also gave me a new perspective on the whole topic surrounding the incident at Pearl Harbor; I got an answer to my question, and had been implanted a new question in my head. Did America provoke Japan into making the first move, which would secure the fate of America fighting the Nazi regime? Who knows, some time in the future when I have the motivation I may be very well be answering that question, and am sure I could to a reasonable job of it due to the skills I have picked up from answering this study. Please Note: The writing in italic is the quote and the writing in bold is my comment on the source. The letter or number beside the quote indicates where I got it from, the list of books and sites can be seen on the last page. Chapter One Events leading up to the attack of Pearl Harbor The Japanese attack on the American fleet based at Pearl Harbor was less an attempt to provoke the United States into a declaration of war than a final admission that war between the United States and Japan was bound to come. Through hindsight I know that this quote is quiet reliable; it shows that there was hostility between the twp nations which had provoked the bombing. When trying to answer the question (above) and you come across such quotes; you can see the jigsaw taking shape. On the other hand, I still have to be cautious as this was written thirty-nine years after the bombing, and could have been exaggerated to make Japan look as if they were ware mongers. This signaled the end of a long period of increasing bitterness between the two nations. The struggle was centered on Japans ambitions for an unchallenged hegemony in the Far East. During the early 1920s the Americans held a conference in Washington. This was in direct result of Japan ceasing Manchuria. The reason America had condemned and refused to recognize the state of Manchukuo (which was set up to replace Manchuria) was solely due to the fact that the Japanese troops had just marched into Manchuria and took it over, as well as the fact that it presented a direct threat to the open door policy. Japan was becoming an increasingly crowded country; Manchuria offered around 200,000 square kilometers of land, which to the Japanese looked as an attractive offer. By 1931 Japan had invested vast sums of money into the economy of Manchuria, which at that time was controlled by the South Manchuria Railway Company. In order to protect the money Japan had invested, they stationed a large army in the South of Manchuria. An explosion on a section of the South Manchuria Railway had given the Japanese an excuse to blame the local population of sabotage and to occupy Manchuria. The Americans in Washington stated that Great Britain, United States, and Japan would be allowed to have the amount of ships in a naval fleet at the ration of 5:5:3. Obviously the Japanese were the ones to pull the short straw. As years went by, there were several more treaties signed and enforced, which furthermore restricted Japan and its naval fleet. The same treaties also had an impact on the United States and Great Britain, but it had a deeper impact on Japan, rather than on the western super powers. In December of 1936 Japan has urged the United States to be lenient and allow them (Japan) to have naval parity, but this was rejected on the grounds of pre-existing treaties. The rejection had given no other alternative, but to withdraw from the London Conference, which was going to be held on January of 1936. Within a year of the withdrawal, the Japanese construction of naval vessels had, exceeded that of France, Italy, Germany and Russia. They were now looking to be a formidable rival to the American fleet in the Pacific. As they were re-arming their forces, they had noticed that many countries in Asia seemed to fear the Japanese. This to Japan looked like a new opportunity for Japan to conquer Asia. Already Japans leaders were declaring a policy of Japanese hegemony over Eastern Asia. When President Roosevelt declared I hate war in a speech in 1936, Japan must have sensed that they would most probably get away with attacking USA. When President Roosevelt said that he hated war, I would say that it had a hidden agenda behind it. Knowing that the only way he could go to war was is someone from the axis would attack the USA; he knew that Hitler was scared to bring in America, so they had to provoke another member of the axis, as Italy was to far, it would have to be Japan. Knowing that if Japan was provoked they would make a rash move, he set out to trap them. First say he hates ware, then secondly move and rename a fleet to the pacific, giving a mirage which showed that American troops were sitting ducks which was not capable of defending itself from an attach. This source is quiet reliable as it has from the President of America during the period it question, and it also had a direct correlations with the study title, as it shows that America was trying to play a cat and mouse game with Japan. In the month of July of the year 1937, Japan had ceased the opportunity and moved its forces to Inner Mongolia, and Northern China. The reason they did this was because they could extend their control of power. The Americans had sympathized with the Chinese and public opinion asked for something stronger to be done, rather than moral gestures put forward. President Roosevelt replied with nothing more forceful than his Quarantine speech of October 1977. The President saw war as a disease and that the best thing would be to stop the contagion spreading. He suggested A quarantine of the patients in order to protect the health of the community against the spread of the disease. The League of Nations in 1932 had condemned the actions that were inflicted by Japan, which violated the Nine Power Treaty and the Kellogg Pact. To show Japan and the entire world, that the League of Nations would not accept such atrocities, they offered to hold a conference in Brussels. As anticipated, Japan bluntly did not attend. Shortly after this, the Americans had decided that they were going to evacuate all their nationals from Chinese territories. The Japanese militarists saw this move as a sign of weakness. To test the ever so fragile cabinet and leader of the Americans, Japan had bombed and sunk Gunboat Panay, on 13th December 1937 in the Yangtze River. The Americans immediately protested, demanding reparations. Japan apologized promptly and paid indemnities. Japan had taken over most of Northern and Central China by 1938. This led America to urge to manufactures to put a moral embargo on the shipments of aircrafts and other ware attributed material. This did not seem to disturb, nor stop the Japanese from invading. By 1940 they had marched to the French-Indo China region, and had taken control. By now, there was sharp disagreement on United States policy towards Japan in American government circles, with the cabinet itself divided. Experienced diplomats and statesmen such as Henry Morgenthal and Henry L. Stimsom said that some sort of ultimatum should have been given to Japan. In mounting pressure Roosevelt issued an order restricting the supply of strategic materials, especially petroleum products to Japan. After much deliberation, he also allowed a naval fleet to re-base itself from San Diego to Pearl Harbor, which was in Honolulu, Hawaii. They were later renamed to the Pacific Fleet. Now tensions between the two nations were going to increase to a new level. The Japanese had to avoid provoking the Americans into war diplomatically, whilst still taking their exploiting their opportunity to the fullest possible.

Relationship Between Molecular Size and Rate of Diffusion

Relationship Between Molecular Size and Rate of Diffusion DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS Minh Thu Vo INTRODUCTION The center of this lab states around the diffusion across a cellular membrane, how exactly materials move and diffuse in concentrations. Both diffusion and osmosis are forms of movement that are part of passive transport dealing with cell membranes. Diffusion is where the solutes move from an area of high concentration to a low concentration. Water goes through the cell membranes by diffusion. Osmosis is specifically the movement of water through membranes. Since osmosis and diffusion are both part of passive transport, this means that they do not require energy or pumps. There are different environments created due to diffusion. There are hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic environments. Hypotonic is when the solution has a lower solute concentration compared to the water potential. The hypertonic solution has a higher solute concentration and lower water potential. In an isotonic solution, there is no net movement and there is an equal concentration of solutes and water (Veno). In our lab, we modeled diffusion and osmosis with a hospital scenario. It is important for a solution to have sugar sucrose in it so the water and solute can be equal to create an isotonic environment. If there wasn’t, there would either be a hypotonic causing the cell to burst, or there would be hypertonic causing the cell to shrink. Purpose of this experience states the relationship between molecular size and the rate of diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane. The osmotis behavior in plant cells and the relationship between the osmolarity of the surrounding solution and this behavior. Each cell type have a unique osmolarity and be able to quantitatively estimate the osmolarity of plant cells experimentally with the use of solution of varying solute concentrations (Lab manual). We created models of living cells by using dialysis tubing. The dialysis tube represented the cell membrane to act as selectively permeable to water and some solutes. Osmosis is a particular kind of diffusion, because the diffusion happens with water molecules moving from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration, passing through a selectively permeable membrane. By taking into consideration the movement of two liquids (the iodine and the starch) through a semi-permeable membrane (the dialysis tubing), and bearing in mind the definition of osmosis, we should expect the two substances to mix with each other until the entire content of the test tube appears a homogeneous mix of starch and iodine. However, we know from the background information that starch molecules are very large carbohydrate molecules, and we also know that selectively permeable membranes only guarantee the passage to small or medium molecules; by knowing this additional information, we can state the following hypotheses. If the starch molecules are too large to pass through the selectively permeable membrane (the dialysis tubing), then the iodine (which has small molecules) will expand from the space around the dialysis tubing (point of high concentration), and move through it, going to the inside of the tubing (point of low concentration) until equilibrium is gained; while the starch will not manage to diffuse throughout the test tube, and so will remain inside the tubing and never achieve equilibrium. Instead, if the starch molecules are small enough to pass through the selectively permeable membrane (the dialysis tubing), then the iodine will expand from the space around the dialysis tubing (point of high concentration), and move through it, going to the inside the tubing (point of low concentration) until equilibrium is gained; while the starch will diffuse from inside the tubing (point of high concentration), move through it and diffuse out the test tube (point of low concentration), and so will also achieve equilibrium. MATERIALS AND METHODS Part A: Diffusion of molecules through a selectively permeable membrane Prepare the dialysis bag with the initial solutions of starch and glucose, then tight the bad by rubber band. Pour water into a baker then add several drop of I2KI to have the color light brown. Place the bag of mix solution in the beaker and wait about 30 minutes to remove this bag into another dry beaker. Pour the solution of beaker into a clean tube, add some drop Benedict’s reagent to tube then heat it. 1) iodine entered the bag, because the solution within the dialysis bag changed from a clear color to a blue/black color. We know because the solution within the bag contains starch that the blue/black color is caused by the diffusion of iodine into the bag, which then reacted with the starch present. Glucose diffused out of the bag, an area of high glucose concentration, into the beaker solution, an area of low glucose concentration. We know this because after the experiment was conducted we tested the beaker solution for glucose using Benedict’s solution. This indicates that glucose molecules are small enough to diffuse through the membrane. 2) The movement of iodine resulted from the relative high concentration of it outside the bag compared the solution within the bag. It also occurred because it is small enough to diffuse through the pores in the membrane. The glucose was in higher concentration in the bag compared to outside the bag resulting in it to diffuse through the bag. Glucose was able to diffuse through the bag because it is small enough, but we know the starch didn’t diffuse, even though there was a concentration gradient, because the outside solution after the experiment was conducted didn’t react to iodine. This means the starch was too large for the membrane 3) I would expect the glucose and IKI molecules the diffuse out of the bag as a result of the higher concentration of the two of them inside the bag in relation to the outside of the bag. When the I2KI diffuses out of the bag I would expect it to react with the starch present outside of the bag and turn the solution blue/black. I would also expect the solution outside the bag to react positively to Benedict’s solution at the end of the experiment due to the glucose that diffused into it. The starch is too large to diffuse, so I would expect it not diffuse at all. Part B: Osmotic behavior in cells Prapare a slide of Elodea in sucrose O.5M solution and another slide of Elodea in distilled water. Part C: Estimating the osmolarity of plant cells Add 100mL of each solution in to 7 beakers as following order: DI water, sucrose 0.1M, 0.2M, 0.3M, 0.4M, 0.5M, 0.6M. Use sharp blade the get 7 sample of potato, weight each sample then transfer to each beaker solution. Incubate them about 1 hour then remove all sample out of beaker, blot them onto paper to dry then weight each sample. The experiment we conducted gave the result that when a potato has contact with a sucrose solution, the cells will start to shrink. We did this by cutting up slices of potato and weighed them and recorded their initial weights. We used deionized water and different concentrations of sucrose. We than placed each potato slice in beakers with their designated solutions. We let them soak and incubate for an hour then we removed them from the beakers. Next we measured their new weights and recorded them. The objective of this experiment is to detect diffusion and osmosis in potato cells in sucrose solutions. Diffusion is the spontaneous spread of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Osmosis is a type of diffusion involving water. The results will either be hypertonic or hypotonic. Hypertonic means that the solution is more salute than water. Hypotonic means less salute and more water. For this lab, we can apply these principles to plant cells. The plant cells have a semi permeable membrane so they can experience osmosis and diffusion as discussed earlier. When it comes to the potato cells, added with sucrose it will experience a reaction changing the form of the cells. The hypothesis of this experiment goes as follows, if we place potato cells in a sucrose solution, then the cells will shrink. They will shrink because when the sucrose is added the water in the potato, where there is high concentration, will move to the outside of the potato where there is low concentration. RESULTS Part A Table 1: Iodine and Benedict’s test Part C Graph molarity of sucrose solution vs % change weight potato DISCUSSION Part A The clolor of beaker change to orange after Benedict’s test that indicate glucose molecule are small enogh to disuse through the membrane. Glucose diffused out of the bag, an are of high glucose concentration into the beaker solution where area of low glucose concentration. 1) iodine entered the bag, because the solution within the dialysis bag changed from a clear color to a blue/black color. We know because the solution within the bag contains starch that the blue/black color is caused by the diffusion of iodine into the bag, which then reacted with the starch present. Glucose diffused out of the bag, an area of high glucose concentration, into the beaker solution, an area of low glucose concentration. We know this because after the experiment was conducted we tested the beaker solution for glucose using Benedict’s solution. This indicates that glucose molecules are small enough to diffuse through the membrane. 2) The movement of iodine resulted from the relative high concentration of it outside the bag compared the solution within the bag. It also occurred because it is small enough to diffuse through the pores in the membrane. The glucose was in higher concentration in the bag compared to outside the bag resulting in it to diffuse through the bag. Glucose was able to diffuse through the bag because it is small enough, but we know the starch didn’t diffuse, even though there was a concentration gradient, because the outside solution after the experiment was conducted didn’t react to iodine. This means the starch was too large for the membrane 3) I would expect the glucose and IKI molecules the diffuse out of the bag as a result of the higher concentration of the two of them inside the bag in relation to the outside of the bag. When the I2KI diffuses out of the bag I would expect it to react with the starch present outside of the bag and turn the solution blue/black. I would also expect the solution outside the bag to react positively to Benedict’s solution at the end of the experiment due to the glucose that diffused into it. The starch is too large to diffuse, so I would expect it not diffuse at all. Part B Base on predictions and observation, 0.5M sucrose is hypertonic solution and distilled water is hypotonic solution. Sucrose has the greatest osmolarity. I expect pond water would be hypertonic because it contains compound that make expand to the cell wall (dangerous for cell), in fact pond water is a hypotonic. Part C Base on graph, at sucrose molarity 0.2M is the curve cross the zero change line. This information can be used to determine the osmolarity of the potato tissue. Sucrose 0.2M make no change weight potato that means the natural potato sucrose molarity at 0.2M. If solution has higher molarity than potato, it loses weight because water move out of cell. In contast, the solution is lower molarity then it gains weight and water move into the cell. Thus I can estimate the osmolarity of the potato tuber tissue is sucrose 0.2M. From the results taken, the more concentrated solutions of sugar seemed to draw the water towards it. This supports my hypothesis and also shows that sugar is also a hypertonic solution since it is were there was more water brought into the solution than outside of it. This could be applied in the real world with people who suffer from dehydration. By raising the sugar level in their body, they are more likely to take in more water into their cells. One thing that could be tried in future experiments could be to add additional types of solutions to the experiment that would simulate more of the human internal cell system. By adding more substances, the chances of seeing how osmosis truly works in the body can be seen that could prove useful for medical purposes (Towle). REFERENCES CSULA, lab manual Biol 100b, 2015 â€Å"Plasma Membrane† Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 2009. 8th Nov. 2009. Towle, Albert, Modern Biology, Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., Orlando, Fl, 1993. Veno, Barbara, slides and take notes biol 100b